New Questions About Samples of Essay Writing in Ielts Answered and Why You Must Read Every Word of This Report

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A Research Assignment All Quiet On The Western Front And...

Research Assignment â€Å"I was there† Anoki Jacksch 12Eng61 16.05.14: Introduction The authors, E.M. Remarque, Eric Lomax, Kurt Vonnegut, Joseph Heller and Ernest Hemingway, who became famous, wrote excellent novels, because they were in love, have an underlying issue or have experienced issues that they want to share with the world. I choose to investigate the following novels: All Quiet on the Western Front, The Railway Man, Slaughterhouse-5, Catch-22 and The Sun Also Rises, because they all thematically connect to the â€Å"horrors of war†. They have all suffered due to the war experience and the effect it had on them following their experience in war and how political leaders at their time influenced it. This has made their novels so exciting in terms of how everything connected and how they reflected the ‘horrors of war’, which they experienced firsthand. The following questions will formulate a comprehensive understanding of the authors and their literary. Question One: Discuss how political leaders of the time have influenced the selected author’s writings. All Quiet on The Western Front, by E.M. Remarque, was based on the outcomes of the decisions political leaders made. On June, 22nd 1914, Austrian Archduke Frances Ferdinand and his wife were assassinated by a Serbian student named Gavrilo Princip, who was part of the â€Å"Black Hand† militant group. This caused a huge chain reaction to occur, which eventually lead to the ‘Great War’. Kaiser Wilhelm led Germany into World WarShow MoreRelatedI Just Wanna Be Average6008 Words   |  25 Pagesâ€Å"I Just Wanna Be Average MIKE ROSE Mike Rose is anything but average: he has published poetry, scholarly research, a textbook, and two widely praised books on education in Amer ­ica. A professor in the School of Education at UCLA, Rose has won awards from the National Academy of Education, the National Council of Teachers of English, and the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation. 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Organizational Management BR Richardson Timber Products Corporation

Question: Discuss about the Organizational Management BR Richardson Timber Products Corporation. Answer: Introduction B.R. Richardson Timber Products Corporation is a lamination plant that is situated in Papoose in Oregon. The company in its early days had a good rate of productivity, which helped them in achieving 100 percent rate of turnover within the company. This had helped the company in becoming famous in the local region with respect to the lamination industry. It had helped the people in securing the jobs within the local region. The plant was facing serious issues from the viewpoint of Richardson and Bowman and one of the major factors was the condition of safety that was present for the employees. The unsafe environment for the employees has exposed them to the injuries that may happen with them. An example of this was that an employee was fatally injured during the course of work, which led to the quitting of most of the employees for the reason of frustration. This led to the decrease in the factor of motivation for the employees, as most of them were worried about the about the factor of safety that was provided to them. Aim and objective The company previously had a high rate of turnover, which had helped the company in increasing its rate of profit and earning goodwill within the local region. However in the current scenario, it can be seen that the rate of turnover for the company has decreased and got to a low of 50 percent. The rewards for the employees were good previously, which helped the employees in boosting up their morale and motivation. This has been reduced, which has resulted in frustration among the employees. The primary objective would be to start the rewards system again in the organization so that it will help in keeping the employees motivated, which would further help in increasing the level of productivity in the organization. Scope The main challenge of the organization is to enhance the level of communication within the employees so that it can help them in managing the work in an efficient manner. The use of the advance technologies within the organization will help the employees in effectively communicating with each other so that the pressure of work can be distributed in an even manner. Discussion: Increasing the rate of turnover The turnover can be increased within the organization by allowing the employees to focus on their work so that it can help in creating value within the workplace. The use of jokes and humors helps in increasing the level of productivity of the employees, as it helps them in diverting their attention for a moment (Ashmarina Khasaev, 2015). The employees need to make the habit of planning their daily routine in the night so that they can predict the pressure of work for the next day. This will help them in having a better knowledge about the duties that they need to perform on the next day (Yang et al., 2015). The distractions that are present within the organizations need to be avoided by the employees so that it will help them in increasing the productivity of the firm. The serious environment within the work culture will help the employees in getting involved within the work in an efficient manner. The organization needs to focus on the healthy food habits of the employees so that they can remain fit and active in coming to the work place on a regular manner (Aggarwal, Hsu Wu, 2015). The employees have to manage the time in a proper manner so that it can help the employees in planning their work in an effective manner. The breaks that the employees are entitled to; will help them in rejuvenating their energy so that they can prepare their mind in continuing their work again in an effective manner, which will help in increasing the rate of turnover within the organization (Artto Turkulainen, 2016). Rewards for the employees The rewards system that has been abolished by the company needs to be introduced again within the organization so that it can help in providing motivation for the employees. The organization needs to have an effective Human Resources department so that they can help in the process of planning of the rewards and incentives that needs to be given to the employees (Olafsen et al., 2015). The compensation that will be given to the employees need to be according to their designation or the level of duty that the employees are assigned within the workplace. The level of compensation will help the employees in gaining better levels of motivation within the work place (Deci Ryan, 2014). The rewards that will be given to the employees will help them in getting recognized within the company, which will help in appreciating the level of productivity among the workers. The employees will have to be provided with better remuneration methods so that they can be motivated within the work place. The rewards that will be provided to the employees needs to be known to them so that they can categorize their targets and achieve their respectable rewards (Yoon et al., 2015). The consistency of the employees will be maintained within the work place by the employees so that they can achieve the desired targets and try to surpass it. This will help the employees in increasing their level of productivity within the work place (Ganta, 2014). Technological advances The organization needs to introduce lasers and sensors in their system so that the employees can keep a track of the logs that are being cut. The cameras need to be installed so that they can help in checking the accuracy of the employees (Stein, Galliers Markus, 2013). The geometric system of scanning along with color vision technology needs to be adopted by the organization so that it can help in determining the grade and the effective ways of cutting the logs (Chelsey, 2014). The use of the high speed system of sorting the logs will help the company in breaking down its logs, which will help in increasing the productivity of the employees within the organization. The use of the technologies will help in increasing the efficiency of the employees within the organization, as it will help the organization in managing the resources in a proper manner (Hacker, 2017). The use of the automation process will help the organization is ensuring the efficient line of production along with better quality of products, as the scanning process will help in detecting the internal defects, which cannot be seen by the human eye (Colbert, Yee George, 2016). Effective communication The importance of communication can be felt in all the organizations, as it helps in communicating in an effective manner between the employees and the upper management. The efficient use of the communication process will help the employees in bringing out their ideas, which can be aligned with the goals and visions of the company. The proper use of the feedback process will help in keeping a constant communication among the senior management and the employees of the company (Ladegaard Jenks, 2015). The use of effective process of communication will help in creating satisfaction of job among the employees, as it will help in encouraging easy methods of correspondence within the levels that are present in the organization. The issues that are present in the work place can be efficiently solved by the senior management with the help of the employees, as their grievances will be taken in to consideration. This will help the employees in working under better conditions, which will further lead to the development of loyalty in the work place (Keyton et al., 2013). The use of better patterns of communication will help in reducing the rate of internal conflicts within the organization, as clear communication methods will help in settling the issues in a mutual manner. This will help the employees in developing their professional and personal growth. The level of productivity will also increase in the workplace, as the goals and vision of the organization will be communicated in a proper manner. The employees will have a better knowledge about the work that they need to carry out within the work place so that they can achieve their target in an efficient manner. The work by the employees will be delivered in a better manner, which will help in increasing the level of output of the employees as well (Cardon Marshall, 2015). The use of open methods of communication will help in will help in establishing better relationship between the employees and the management so that the feedbacks that will be shared will help in improving the level of work within the organization. The level of communication will help in creating a friendly environment so that it will help in the promotion of better work culture within the organization. The resources that are available within the organization can be used in a better manner if the level of communication within the organization is clear and transparent (Carroll, 2015). Conclusion Therefore, it can be concluded that the organization is facing trouble with the authoritarian style of leadership, which may demotivate the employees and hamper the level of productivity within the organization. The use of efficient levels of practices will help the employees in increasing their level of productivity and help the organization in generating better rate of revenues. The use of the better level of technologies will help in efficient increase in the output of the organization. The increase in the better quality of products will help in attracting the customers so that the revenues of the firm can be increased, which will help the company in earning goodwill in the market as well. Recommendations Thus, it can be recommended that the employees need to have a better description of the work within the organization, as most of the departments within the organization are informal in nature. The rewards system that will be available in the organization needs to be effective in manner so that the employees can get motivated within the work place and increase the productivity within the organization. The use of the proper communication methods will help in communicating in between the employees so that the level of transparency can be maintained between them. This will help in the increase of the relationships among the employees in a better manner within the organization. Since the company does not have have any proper methods of gathering and assessing the information within the organization, they need to set up proper practices within the organization, which will help in recording the transactions in an easy manner. The communication pattern needs to be present in between the shifts of the employees so that the new employees who are being hired can have access to the information about the safety practices and the level of production that they need to maintain within the organization. Apart from the word of mouth policy, the company needs to hold meetings on a frequent basis so that the employees can receive all the information that has been taken up by the upper management. The employees then need to provide their valuable feedback, which will help in implementing the process that will change the course of work within the organization. References Aggarwal, V. A., Hsu, D. H., Wu, A. (2015). RD production team organization and firm-level innovation. Artto, K. A., Turkulainen, V. (2016, January). Looking Beyond Project Uniqueness: Product-Organization Interdependence at the Subsystem Level. InAcademy of Management Proceedings(Vol. 2016, No. 1, p. 13593). Academy of Management. Ashmarina, S. I., Khasaev, G. R. (2015). Methodical estimation basic concepts of organization changes requirements level and enterprises readiness to their implementation. Cardon, P. W., Marshall, B. (2015). The hype and reality of social media use for work collaboration and team communication.International Journal of Business Communication,52(3), 273-293. Carroll, C. E. (Ed.). (2015).The handbook of communication and corporate reputation(Vol. 49). John Wiley Sons. Chesley, N. (2014). Workplace technology use may increase both employees distress and productivity.LSE American Politics and Policy. Colbert, A., Yee, N., George, G. (2016). The digital workforce and the workplace of the future.Academy of Management Journal,59(3), 731-739. Deci, E. L., Ryan, R. M. (2014). The importance of universal psychological needs for understanding motivation in the workplace.The Oxford handbook of work engagement, motivation, and self-determination theory, 13-32. Ganta, V. C. (2014). Motivation in the workplace to improve the employee performance.International Journal of Engineering Technology,2(6), 221-230. Hacker, S. (2017).Pleasure, power and technology: Some tales of gender, engineering, and the cooperative workplace(Vol. 5). Routledge. Keyton, J., Caputo, J. M., Ford, E. A., Fu, R., Leibowitz, S. A., Liu, T., ... Wu, C. (2013). Investigating verbal workplace communication behaviors.The Journal of Business Communication (1973),50(2), 152-169. Ladegaard, H. J., Jenks, C. J. (2015). Language and intercultural communication in the workplace: critical approaches to theory and practice.Language and Intercultural Communication,15(1), 1-12. Olafsen, A. H., Halvari, H., Forest, J., Deci, E. L. (2015). Show them the money? The role of pay, managerial need support, and justice in a self?determination theory model of intrinsic work motivation.Scandinavian journal of psychology,56(4), 447-457. Stein, M. K., Galliers, R. D., Markus, M. L. (2013). Towards an understanding of identity and technology in the workplace.Journal of Information Technology,28(3), 167-182. Yang, T., Kuo, Y., Su, C. T., Hou, C. L. (2015). Lean production system design for fishing net manufacturing using lean principles and simulation optimization.Journal of Manufacturing Systems,34, 66-73. Yoon, H. J., Sung, S. Y., Choi, J. N., Lee, K., Kim, S. (2015). Tangible and intangible rewards and employee creativity: The mediating role of situational extrinsic motivation.Creativity Research Journal,27(4), 383-393.

Management Accounting Project Report Cvp Analysis for a Firm Under Expansion Phase Essay Example

Management Accounting Project Report Cvp Analysis for a Firm Under Expansion Phase Essay The CVP analysis helps in taking more than one decisions in a firm. How would you substantiate this statement for a unit under expansion phase| | Abstract Companies commonly face major uncertainties in their product markets, particularly in the manufacturing industry where competition is often fierce and consumer tastes change rapidly. Managers need to estimate future revenues, costs, and profits to help them plan and monitor operations and to decide the mix and volumes of goods or services to produce and sell. They also use this information to evaluate profitability risk. Cost-volume-profit (CVP) analysis is the technique used to identify the levels of operating activity needed to avoid losses, achieve targeted profits, plan future operations, decide on expansion or contraction plans, monitor organizational performance and analyze operational risk as they choose an appropriate cost structure to help in the decision making process to sustain the firm. Table of Contents Introduction4 Marginal Cost Equations and CVP Analysis9 Cost Volume Profit (CVP) Relationship in Graphic Form14 Applications of Cost Volume Profit (CVP) Concepts17 CVP Analysis Illustrations Unit in Expansion Mode19 Illustration 119 Illustration 222 References28 Introduction To assist planning and decision making, management should know not only the budgeted profit, but also: * the output and sales level at which there would neither profit nor loss (break-even point) * the amount by which actual sales can fall below the budgeted sales level, without a loss being incurred (the margin of safety) In marginal costing, marginal cost varies directly with the volume of production or output. On the other hand, fixed cost remains unaltered regardless of the volume of output within the scale of production already fixed by management. We will write a custom essay sample on Management Accounting Project Report Cvp Analysis for a Firm Under Expansion Phase specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Management Accounting Project Report Cvp Analysis for a Firm Under Expansion Phase specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Management Accounting Project Report Cvp Analysis for a Firm Under Expansion Phase specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer In case if cost behaviour is related to sales income, it shows cost-volume-profit relationship. In net effect, if volume is changed, variable cost varies as per the change in volume. In this case, selling price remains fixed, fixed remains fixed and then there is a change in profit. Being a manager, you constantly strive to relate these elements in order to achieve the maximum profit. Cost – Volume profit Analysis is a logical extension of Marginal costing. It is based on the same principles of classifying the operating expenses into fixed and variable. CVP analysis is generally defined as a planning tool by which managers can evaluate the effect of a change(s) in price, volume, variable cost or fixed cost on profit. Additionally, CVP analysis is the basis for understanding contribution margin pricing, related short-run decisions, target costing and transfer pricing. Apart from profit projection, the concept of Cost-Volume-Profit (CVP) is relevant to virtually all decision-making areas, particularly in the short run. The relationship among cost, revenue and profit at different levels may be expressed in graphs such as breakeven charts, profit volume graphs or in various statements forms. CVP Analysis helps managers understand the interrelationship between cost, volume, and profit in an  organization  by focusing on interactions among the following five elements:   1. Prices of products 2. Volume or level of activity 3. Per unit variable cost 4. Total fixed cost 5. Mix of product sold Earning of maximum profit is the ultimate goal of almost all business undertakings. Profit depends on a large number of factors, most important of which are the cost of manufacturing and the volume of sales. Both these factors are interdependent. Volume of sales depends upon the level of production i. e. volume of production and market forces which turns in related to costs. Management has no control over market. In order to achieve certain level of profitability, it has to exercise control and management of costs, mainly variable cost. This is because fixed cost is a non-controllable cost. In other words, it helps in locating the level of output which evenly breaks the cost and revenues used. In its broader sense, it means that system of analysis which determines profit, cost and sales value at different levels of output i. . it establishes the relationship of cost, volume and profit. CVP Analysis helps to find out the profitability of a product, department of division to have better product mix, for profit planning and to maximize the profit of a concern. The decisions can include such crucial areas as pricing policies, product mixes, market expansion or contractions, outsourcing contracts, idle plant usage, discretionary e xpenses planning and a variety of other important considerations in the planning process. Thus cost volume profit analysis furnishes the complete picture of the profit structure. When the firm is in expansion phase, Funds are provided for the major expansion of a company which has increasing sales volume and which is breaking even or which has achieved initial profitability. Funds are utilized for  further plant expansion, marketing, and working capital  or for development of an  improved product, a  new technology, or an  expanded product line. Cost-volume-profit analysis can answer a number of analytical questions. These include, for example: 1. What products to manufacture or sell? 2. What pricing policy to follow? 3. What marketing strategy to employ? 4. What type of productive facilities to acquire? Cost-volume-profit analysis can also answer many other â€Å"what if† type of questions. Cost-volume-profit analysis is one of the important techniques of cost and management accounting. Although it is simple, it is a powerful tool for planning of profits and therefore, of commercial operations. It provides an answer to â€Å"what if† theme by telling the volume required to be produced. Following are the three approaches to a CVP analysis: * Cost and revenue equations * Contribution margin * Profit graph Before going into further details on the above three approaches below is described, the broad objectives of CVP analysis and the assumptions thereof n attaining these objectives. Further the limitations of the CVP analysis are detailed, which will help determine when, where and in which situations CVP analysis can be applied effectively in the various decisions that a firm needs to make to continue functioning. Objectives of Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis 1. In order to fo recast profits accurately, it is essential to ascertain the relationship between cost and profit on one hand and volume on the other. 2. Cost-volume-profit analysis is helpful in setting up flexible budget which indicates cost at various levels of activities. . Cost-volume-profit analysis assists in evaluating performance for the purpose of control. 4. Such analysis may assist management in formulating pricing policies by projecting the effect of different price structures on cost and profit. Assumptions Following are the assumptions on which the theory of CVP is based: 1. The changes in the level of various revenue and costs arise only because of the changes in the number of product (or service) units produced and sold, e. g. , the number of television sets produced and sold by Sigma Corporation. The number of output (units) to be sold is the only revenue and cost driver. Just as a cost driver is any factor that affects costs, a revenue driver is any factor that affects revenue. 2. Total costs can be divided into a fixed component and a component that is variable with respect to the level of output. Variable costs include the following: * Direct materials * Direct labor * Direct chargeable expenses Variable overheads include the following: * Variable part of factory overheads * Administration overheads * Selling and distribution overheads 3. There is linear relationship between revenue and cost. 4. When put in a graph, the behavior of total revenue and cost is linear (straight line), i. e. Y = ax + b holds good which is the equation of a straight line. 5. The unit selling price, unit variable costs and fixed costs are constant. 6. The theory of CVP is based upon the production of a single product. However, of late, management accountants are functioning to give a theoretical and a practical approach to multi-product CVP analysis. 7. The analysis either covers a single product or assumes that the sales mix sold in case of multiple products will remain constant as the level of total units sold changes. . All revenue and cost can be added and compared without taking into account the time value of money. 9. The theory of CVP is based on the technology that remains constant. 10. The theory of price elasticity is not taken into consideration. Many companies, and divisions and sub-divisions of companies in industries such as airlines, automobiles, chemicals, plastics and semiconductor s have found the simple CVP relationships to be helpful in the following areas: * Strategic and long-range planning decisions * Decisions about product features and pricing In real world, simple assumptions described above may not hold good. The theory of CVP can be tailored for individual industries depending upon the nature and peculiarities of the same. For example, predicting total revenue and total cost may require multiple revenue drivers and multiple cost drivers. Some of the multiple revenue drivers are as follows: * Number of output units * Number of customer visits made for sales * Number of advertisements placed Some of the multiple cost drivers are as follows: * Number of units produced * Number of batches in which units are produced Managers and management accountants, however, should always assess whether the simplified CVP relationships generate sufficiently accurate information for predictions of how total revenue and total cost would behave. However, one may come across different complex situations to which the theory of CVP would rightly be applicable in order to help managers to take appropriate decisions under different situations. Limitations of Cost-Volume Profit Analysis The CVP analysis is generally made under certain limitations and with certain assumed conditions, some of which may not occur in practice. Following are the main assumptions and limitations therein of the cost-volume-profit analysis: 1. It is assumed that the production facilities anticipated for the purpose of cost-volume-profit analysis do not undergo any change. Such analysis gives misleading results if expansion or reduction of capacity takes place. 2. In case where a variety of products with varying margins of profit are manufactured, it is difficult to forecast with reasonable accuracy the volume of sales mix which would optimize the profit. 3. The analysis will be correct only if input price and selling price remain fairly constant which in reality is difficult to find. Thus, if a cost reduction program is undertaken or selling price is changed, the relationship between cost and profit will not be accurately depicted. 4. In cost-volume-profit analysis, it is assumed that variable costs are perfectly and completely variable at all levels of activity and fixed cost remains constant throughout the range of volume being considered. However, such situations may not arise in practical situations. . It is assumed that the changes in opening and closing inventories are not significant, though sometimes they may be significant. 6. Inventories are valued at variable cost and fixed cost is treated as period cost. Therefore, closing stock carried over to the next financial year does not contain any component of fixed cost. Inventory should be valued at full cost in reality. Sensitivity Analysis or What If Analysis and Uncertainty Sens itivity analysis is relatively a new term in management accounting. It is a â€Å"what if† technique that managers use to examine how a result will change if the original predicted data are not achieved or if an underlying assumption changes. In the context of CVP analysis, sensitivity analysis answers the following questions: 1. What will be the operating income if units sold decrease by 15% from original prediction? 2. What will be the operating income if variable cost per unit increases by 20%? The sensitivity of operating income to various possible outcomes broadens the perspective of management regarding what might actually occur before making cost commitments. Marginal Cost Equations and CVP Analysis Break even is the level of sales at which the profit is zero. Cost volume profit analysis is some time referred to simply as break even analysis. This is unfortunate because break even analysis is only one element of cost volume profit analysis. Break even analysis is designed to answer questions such as  How far sales could drop before the company begins to lose money? † From the marginal cost statements, one might have observed the following: Sales – Marginal cost = Contribution(1) Fixed cost + Profit = Contribution(2) By combining these two equations, we get the fundamental marginal cost equation as follows: Sales – Marginal cost = Fixed cost + Profit(3) This fundamental marginal cost equation plays a vital role in profit projection and has a wider application in managerial decision-making problems. The sales and marginal costs vary directly with the number of units sold or produced. So, the difference between sales and marginal cost, i. e. contribution, will bear a relation to sales and the ratio of contribution to sales remains constant at all levels. This is profit volume or P/V ratio. Thus, P/V Ratio (or C/S Ratio) = Contribution (C)Sales (S) (4) It is usually expressed in terms of percentage, P/V ratio = (C/S) x 100 Contribution = Sales x P/V ratio(5) Sales = Contribution (C)PV Ratio(6) The above-mentioned marginal cost equations can be applied to the following heads: 1. Contribution Margin Contribution margin  is the amount remaining from sales revenue after variable expenses have been deducted i. e. difference between sales and marginal or variable costs. Thus it is the amount available to cover fixed expenses and then to provide profits for the period. The concept of contribution helps in deciding breakeven point, profitability of products, departments etc. to perform the following activities: * Selecting product mix or sales mix for profit maximization * Fixing selling prices under different circumstances such as trade depression, export sales, price discrimination etc. CVP analysis can be used to help find the most profitable combination of variable costs, fixed costs, selling price, and sales volume. Profits can sometimes be improved by reducing the contribution margin if fixed costs can be reduced by a greater amount. The contribution margin as a percentage of total sales is referred to as contribution margin ratio (CM Ratio). Contribution margin ratio can be used in cost-volume profit calculations. 2. Profit Volume Ratio (P/V Ratio), its Improvement and Application The ratio of contribution to sales is P/V ratio or C/S ratio. It is the contribution per rupee of sales and since the fixed cost remains constant in short term period, P/V ratio will also measure the rate of change of profit due to change in volume of sales. The P/V ratio may be expressed as follows: P/V Ratio = Sales-Marginal Cost of SalesSales ContributionSales = Changes in ContributionChanges in Sales = Change in ProfitChange in Sales A fundamental property of marginal costing system is that P/V ratio remains constant at different levels of activity. A change in fixed cost does not affect P/V ratio. The concept of P/V ratio helps in determining the following: * Breakeven point * Profit at any volume of sales * Sales volume required to earn a desired quantum of profit * Profitability of products * Processes or departments The contribution can be increased by increasing the sales price or by reduction of variable costs. Thus, P/V ratio can be improved by the following: * Increasing selling price * Reducing marginal costs by effectively utilizing men, machines, materials and other services * Selling more profitable products, thereby increasing the overall P/V ratio 3. Breakeven Point Breakeven point is the volume of sales or production where there is neither profit nor loss. Thus, we can say that: Contribution = Fixed cost Now, breakeven point can be easily calculated with the help of fundamental marginal cost equation, P/V ratio or contribution per unit. a. Using Marginal Costing Equation S (Sales) – V (Variable cost) = F (Fixed cost) + P (Profit) At BEP P = 0, i. e. BEP Sales – V = F By multiplying both the sides by S and rearranging them, one gets the following equation: Sales at BEP = F. S/S-V b. Using P/V Ratio Sales (S) at BEP = Contribution at BEPP/V Ratio = Fixed CostP/V Ratio c. Using Contribution per unit Breakeven Point = Fixed Cost/Contribution per unit 4. Margin of Safety (MOS) Every enterprise tries to know how much above they are from the breakeven point. This is technically called margin of safety. It is calculated as the difference between sales or production units at the selected activity and the breakeven sales or production. Margin of safety is the difference between the total sales (actual or projected) and the breakeven sales. It may be expressed in monetary terms (value) or as a number of units (volume). It can be expressed as profit / P/V ratio. A large margin of safety indicates the soundness and financial strength of business. Margin of safety can be improved by lowering fixed and variable costs, increasing volume of sales or selling price and changing product mix, so as to improve contribution and overall P/V ratio. Margin of safety = Sales at selected activity – Sales at BEP = Profit at selected activityP/V Ratio Margin of safety is also presented in ratio or percentage as follows: Margin of Safety SalesSales at selected activity ? 100% The size of margin of safety is an extremely valuable guide to the strength of a business. If it is large, there can be substantial falling of sales and yet a profit can be made. On the other hand, if margin is small, any loss of sales may be a serious matter. If margin of safety is unsatisfactory, possible steps to rectify the causes of mismanagement of commercial activities as listed below can be undertaken. . Increasing the selling price It may be possible for a company to have higher margin of safety in order to strengthen the financial health of the business. It should be able to influence price, provided the demand is elastic. Otherwise, the same quantity will not be sold. 2. Reducing fixed costs 3. Reducing variable costs 4. Substitution of existin g product(s) by more profitable lines e. Increase in the volume of output 5. Modernization of production facilities and the introduction of the most cost effective technology 5. Degree of Operating Leverage Managers decide how to structure the cost function for their organizations. Often, potential trade-offs are made between fixed and variable costs. For example, a company could purchase a vehicle (a fixed cost) or it could lease a vehicle under a contract that charges a rate per mile driven (a variable cost). One of the major disadvantages of fixed costs is that they may be difficult to reduce quickly if activity levels fail to meet expectations, thereby increasing the organization’s risk of incurring losses. The degree of operating leverage is the extent to which the cost function is made up of fixed costs. Organizations with high operating leverage incur more risk of loss when sales decline. Conversely, when operating leverage is high an increase in sales (once fixed costs are covered) contributes quickly to profit. The formula for operating leverage can be written in terms of either contribution margin or fixed costs, as shown here Degree of operating leverage in terms of contribution margin = Contribution marginProfit = Total Revenue-Total Variable CostProfit P-VQProfit Degree of operating leverage in terms of fixed costs = FProfit+1 Managers use the degree of operating leverage to gauge the risk associated with their cost function and to explicitly calculate the sensitivity of profits to changes in sales (units or revenues): % change in profit = % change in sales x Degree of Operating leverage Managers need to consider the degree of operating leverage when they decide whether to incu r additional fixed costs, such as purchasing new equipment or hiring new employees. They also need to consider the degree of operating leverage for potential new products and services that could increase an organization’s fixed costs relative to variable costs. If additional fixed costs cause the degree of operating leverage to reach what they consider an unacceptably high level, managers often use variable costs—such as temporary labour—rather than additional fixed costs to meet their operating needs. Cost Volume Profit (CVP) Relationship in Graphic Form Apart from marginal cost equations, it is found that the relationships among revenue, cost, profit and volume can be expressed graphically by preparing a  cost-volume-profit (CVP) graph or break even chart. Breakeven chart and profit graphs, which is a development of simple breakeven chart and shows clearly profit at different volumes of sales, are useful graphic presentations of the cost-volume-profit relationship. Breakeven chart is a device which shows the relationship between sales volume, marginal costs and fixed costs, and profit or loss at different levels of activity. Such a chart also shows the effect of change of one factor on other factors and exhibits the rate of profit and margin of safety at different levels. A breakeven chart contains, among other things, total sales line, total cost line and the point of intersection called breakeven point. It is popularly called breakeven chart because it shows clearly breakeven point (a point where there is no profit or no loss). Construction of a Breakeven Chart The construction of a breakeven chart involves the drawing of fixed cost line, total cost line and sales line as follows: 1. Select a scale for production on horizontal axis and a scale for costs and sales on vertical axis. 2. Plot fixed cost on vertical axis and draw fixed cost line passing through this point parallel to horizontal axis. 3. Plot variable costs for some activity levels starting from the fixed cost line and join these points. This will give total cost line. Alternatively, obtain total cost at different levels; plot the points starting from horizontal axis and draw total cost line. 4. Plot the maximum or any other sales volume and draw sales line by joining zero and the point so obtained. Uses of Breakeven Chart A breakeven chart can be used to show the effect of changes in any of the following profit factors: * Volume of sales * Variable expenses * Fixed expenses * Selling price A CVP graph or breakeven chart thus highlights CVP relationships over wide ranges of activity and can give managers a perspective that can be obtained in no other way. Profit Graph Profit graph is an improvement of a simple breakeven chart. It clearly exhibits the relationship of profit to volume of sales. The construction of a profit graph is relatively easy and the procedure involves the following: 1. Selecting a scale for the sales on horizontal axis and another scale for profit and fixed costs or loss on vertical axis. The area above horizontal axis is called profit area and the one below it is called loss area. 2. Plotting the profits of corresponding sales and joining them. This is profit line. Limitations and Uses of Breakeven Charts A simple breakeven chart gives correct result as long as variable cost per unit, total fixed cost and sales price remain constant. In practice, all these factors may change and the original breakeven chart may give misleading results. But then, if a company sells different products having different percentages of profit to turnover, the original combined breakeven chart fails to give a clear picture when the sales mix changes. In this case, it may be necessary to draw up a breakeven chart for each product or a group of products. A breakeven chart does not take into account capital employed which is a very important factor to measure the overall efficiency of business. Fixed costs may increase at some level whereas variable costs may sometimes start to decline. For example, with the help of quantity discount on materials purchased, the sales price may be reduced to sell the additional units produced etc. These changes may result in more than one breakeven point, or may indicate higher profit at lower volumes or lower profit at still higher levels of sales. Nevertheless, a breakeven chart is used by management as an efficient tool in marginal costing, i. e. in forecasting, decision-making, long term profit planning and maintaining profitability. The margin of safety shows the soundness of business whereas the fixed cost line shows the degree of mechanization. The angle of incidence is an indicator of plant efficiency and profitability of the product or division under consideration. It also helps a monopolist to make price discrimination for maximization of profit. Applications of Cost Volume Profit (CVP) Concepts CVP analysis thus involves the analysis of how total costs, total revenues and total profits are related to sales volume, and is therefore concerned with predicting the effects of changes in costs and sales volume on profit. The technique used carefully may be helpful in the following situations: a) Budget planning. The volume of sales required to make a profit (breakeven point) and the safety margin for profits in the budget can be measured. b) Pricing and sales volume decisions. c) Sales mix decisions, to determine in what proportions each product should be sold. d) Decisions that will affect the cost structure and production capacity of the company. e) Make or buy decisions – Analyzing and determining whether it is profitable for a firm to manufacture a particular component or product themselves, outsource the production to others or buy a component/product already available for their use. ) To decide whether or not to close down a factory, department, product line or other activity, either because it is making losses or because it is too expensive to run. This often involves long term considerations, and capital expenditures and revenues. But it can be simplified into short run decisions, by making certain assumptions. g) Assist in determining production or activity levels of employee s and their work schedules. h) Assist in determining discretionary expenditures and product emphasis such as advertising. While this type of analysis is typical for manufacturing firms, it also is appropriate for other types of industries. In addition to the restaurant industry, CVP has been used in decision-making for nuclear versus gas- or coal-fired energy generation. Some of the more important costs in the analysis are projected discount rates and increasing governmental regulation. At a more down-to-earth level is the prospective purchase of high quality compost for use on golf courses in the Carolinas. Greens managers tend to balk at the necessity of high (fixed) cost equipment necessary for uniform spread ability and maintenance, even if the (variable) cost of the compost is reasonable. Interestingly, one of the unacceptably high fixed costs of this compost is the smell, which is not adaptable to CVP analysis. Even in the highly regulated banking industry, CVP has been useful in pricing decisions. The market for banking services is based on two primary categories. First is the price-sensitive group. In the 1990s leading banks tended to increase fees on small, otherwise unprofitable accounts. As smaller account holders have departed, operating costs for these banks have decreased due to fewer accounts; those that remain pay for their keep. The second category is the maturity-based group. Responses to changes in rates paid for certificates of deposit are inherently delayed by the maturity date. Important increases in fixed costs for banks include computer technology and the employment of skilled analysts to segment the markets for study. Even entities without a profit goal find CVP useful. Governmental agencies use the analysis to determine the level of service appropriate for projected revenues. Nonprofit agencies, increasingly stipulating fees for service, can explore fee-pricing options; in many cases, the recipients are especially price-sensitive due to income or health concerns. The agency can use CVP to explore the options for efficient allocation of resources. Project feasibility studies frequently use CVP as a preliminary analysis. Such major undertakings as real estate/construction ventures have used this technique to explore pricing, lender choice, and project scope options. Cost-volume-profit analysis is a simple but flexible tool for exploring potential profit based on cost strategies and pricing decisions. While it may not provide detailed analysis, it can prevent do-nothing management paralysis by providing insight on an overview basis. CVP Analysis Illustrations Unit in Expansion Mode In an expanding market, managers take advantage of fixed costs to generate profitable growth as additional customers do not add much additional costs. In such cases cost structure dominated by fixed cost structure is a smart managerial decision. Whenever a decision is to be taken as to whether the capacity is to be expanded or not, consideration should be given to the following points: * Additional fixed expenses to be incurred * Possible decrease in selling price due to increase in production * Whether the demand is sufficient to absorb the increased production Based on these considerations, the cost schedule will be worked out. While deciding about the contraction of business, the saving in fixed expenses and the marginal contribution lost will have to be taken into account. If a branch office is to be closed down, and if the branch is giving a marginal contribution sufficient to cover fixed expenses the contraction may lead to a loss. Example: Branch B Sales – `20000 P/V Ratio – 20% Marginal contribution – `4000 Fixed expenses of the branch – `3000 The branch is giving an extra contribution of `1000. If it is closed, the fixed expense saving is `3000, whereas the contribution lost is `4000. Hence it is not advisable to contract the business by closing down the branch. Illustration 1 Nice and Warm Ltd. , manufactures and markets hot plates. During the first five years of operation, the company had experienced a gradual increase in sales volume, and the current annual growth in sales of 5% is expected to continue into the foreseeable future. The plant is now producing at its full capacity of one lakh hot plates. At the monthly Management Advisory Committee meeting, amongst other things, the plan of action for next year was discussed. Managing Director proposed two alternatives. First, operations could be continued at full capacity and with the existing facilities an output of one lakh hot plates at a selling price of `100 per unit could be maintained. Secondly, production and sales could be increased by 5% to take advantage of the rate of expansion in demand for the product. But this could increase cost, as to achieve this output the company will have to resort to weekend and overtime workings. However, a policy of steady growth was preferable to maintaining status quo. In view of the company’s competitors having a substantial share of the market, the Works Director was of the view that it was not enough for the company to maintain merely the present share of the total market. A larger share of the total market should be obtained. For that, the company should increase the production by 10% through a modest expansion of plant capacity. In order to sell the output of 110000 units, the selling price could be reduced to `95 per unit. Thinking on the same lines, the Marketing Director put forth a more radical proposal. The strategy should be to seize the competitive leadership in the market with regard to both price and volume. With this end in view, he suggested that the company should straight away embark on an expensive modernization programme which will initially increase volume by 20%. The entire output of 120000 hot plates could be easily sold at a price of `90 per unit. At this juncture Managing Director expressed concern about the probable behavior of the company’s competitors. They might also expand in order to produce more and sell at lowest prices. Suppose this happened, he wanted also the financial effects of the proposals of the Works Director and the Marketing Director, if in those proposals, the incr